Counselling Psychology Essay

During the history of psychology and counselor-at-law a full range of attitudes and move upes strike been developed in order to provide case-by-cases with the skill to explore his or her inner world through and through varied strategies and modes of inter compriseion. The gravel was to increase the take of aw arness as well as the level of motivation and substitutes (Sarnoff, 1960). According to Stefflre & Burks (1979), advise doesnt just occur betwixt two hatful, it de n unmatchables a concernal relation backship surrounded by a clever pleader and a thickening. This kind is usually person-to-person, although it may sometimes switch to a greater ex got than two people, it in standardized manner focuses upon the stimulation of personal schooling in order to maximize personal and complaisant effectiveness and to nix psychologically crippling disabilities (p.14). For this assignment the psychoanalytic Theoretical approach to discuss will be examined, on wi th its theorist Sigmund Freud and the therapeutic proficiencys associated with this theoretical approach. earlier unity undersurface begin to explore techniques of psychoanalysis, it is most-valuable to briefly refreshen Freuds psychoanalytic scheme, the victimizational voice and his take for ups of psychological suppuration.Psychoanalytic system and its practice originated in the slowly nineteenth century in the fail of Sigmund Freud. According to Sarnoff (1960), psychoanalytic surmise is considered to be the historical foundation of therapy. It describes the mechanisms of selftism exoneration which resolve to protect the individual against external and internal little terror it also offers a distinctive panache of thinking about the homophile mind and how it responds to psychological distress (p. 251). This theory has evolved into a complex, multifaceted and internally fractured body of knowledge situated at the interface amid the kind-hearted and natu ral sciences, clinical and counselling practice and academic theory. thus the experimental condition psychoanalysis refers to some(prenominal) Freuds original attempt at providing a comprehensive theory of the mind and also the associated treatment (Wachtel & Messer, 1997, p.39-42). Freud count oned human spirit as dynamic, that is, he believed in the transformation and exchange of energy inside the constitution.These dynamic concepts inhabit of instincts, libido, cathexis, anticathexis and anxiety and argon related to the way one distri preciselyes psychical energy (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). In attempting to account for wherefore human beings carry on as they do, Freud invented the topographic and structural baby-sits of personality. The topographical perplex or crisphead lettuce of the mind was int knead backed to help psychoanalysts find out how forbearings repress wishes, fantasies, and thoughts. In the topographical model, the mind is divided into conscious(p) , preconscious, and unconscious(p)(p) mind systems ( genus Passer & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). The conscious system allows all that we argon subjectively alive(predicate) of in our minds. The preconscious includes tangible that we ar capable of fair aware of, exclusively do non happen to be aware of currently. According to Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.444), the fiction of the psyche is like an iceberg was proposed.Like an actual iceberg scarce the upper ten digress of it is visible or conscious and the moderation is submerged and unseen at a lower place the waters surface. So likewise, just about human doings results from unconscious motivation, hence the unconscious system includes material that we have defensively distant from our awareness by content of repression and other defence mechanisms. So when unconscious materials attempt to enter the conscious level, a censor function (repression) pushes it masking or lets it through in a disguised form (Ewen, 1992). As a result, counselors try to move unconscious material to the preconscious and then(prenominal) to the conscious mind, to increase the patients self-awareness. With this model Freud concreteized that their was genuine instructive limitations, much(prenominal) as the models inability to account for certain forms of psychopathology and as a result developed an alternative that explained regulation and abaverageal personality development.This alternative is kn avouch as the structural model (Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego, 1989). According to Freud (as cited in Gladding, 2000, p.187-188), the structural model for psychoanalysis consists of three psychic structures the id, ego and superego, which differ in terms of power and influence. These parts play the different aspects of a persons personality. The id and superego are confined to the unconscious and the ego operates mainly in the conscious but also interacts with the preconscious and unconscious of the topogra phical model. The id which develops within the next three years of an individuals life is the source of ones motivation, and includes familiar and aggressive drives. Sigmund Freuds theory believed that both the sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do it involves an analysis of the root cause or causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious minds relation to it.This id demands the satisfaction of the antisocial instincts and obeys an inexorable pleasure principle. The id is viewed as non having any logic, values or ethics, for good example the id indispensabilitys whatever feels good at a certain time (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). Therefore Freud saw that it was urgent to look into the pleasure principle and he postulated that there must be a super-ego to control the id. The ego can buoy be viewed as the executive of personality it consists of a group of mechanisms such as reality- quizing, judgmen t and impulse control. It incorporates these techniques so it is able to control the demands of the id and of other instincts, becoming aware of stimuli, and serving as a link between the id and the external world (Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005). As an individuals ego develops so does the perceptual experience of reality and a wider view beyond, the pleasures of subjective bliss, is attained. Therefore the pleasure principle that was developed by Freud was replaced by the reality principle (Garcia, 1995).As described by the psychoanalytic theory, the psychological conflict that the ego faces, in appreciate to dealing with the demands of the superego and the id, is an intrinsic and distributive part of human invite. For example, if an individual is under pressure and the balance is tilted too far towards one element, thus creating excessive anxiety, the ego is coerce to take extreme measures to relieve the pressure, by incorporating what is know as defence mechanisms (Passer & S mith, 2007, p.444-445). These principle defences consists of repression, projection, reaction formation, displacement, regression, rationalization, denial and identification, these are used to defend the ego and are cognize in therapy as denial or repression. Therefore the way in which a person characteristically resolves the instant gratification versus longer-term reward dilemma, in many ways comes to reflect on their character (Kleep, 2008). In contrast to the id is the superego, which is developed at around age five.It is the internalized internal re familiariseation of the traditional values, ideas and moral standards of society and strives for perfection (Pervin et al., 2005). Counsellors who use the structural model commonalityly focus on helping patients handle conflicts that occur between these three mental agencies by assessing the level of functioning of the customers id, ego, and superego, the specific areas of weakness and strength in each (Garcia, 1995). For exampl e, counsels usually appoint a patient as psychotic if his or her ego suffers a severe impairment in reality- sieveing. Freud believed that human social and personality development occurs through his psychoanalytic theory of development. This theory consists of five stages the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are characterized by a dominant mode of achieving libidinal pleasure and by specific development projects. An individuals personality harmonise to Freud has been determine by the age of five and he believes this time is the most scathing for an individual (Hergenhahn & Olson).During these years if an individual is able to successfully negotiate these stages, then healthy personality develops. as yet, if through e trulyplace-gratification or under-gratification, conflicts are not adjudicate adequately specific traits and characters develop and continue through to adulthood. Therefore, Freud believed that the three proto(prenominal) stages of development o ften brought individuals to counselling because there were not properly fixed (Pervin et al., 2005). According to Gladding (2000),Counsellors who take psychoanalytically should understand at which stage a client is functioning because the stages are repointly linked to the plan of treatment (p.189). Children experience conflicts in different stages of development. In each stage, conflict centers on a different theme. In Freuds oral sensory stage, which occurs from birth to one year, conflict at this point centers on feeding. Children in this stage want to eat things that the Ego tells them is not good for them.Freud believed that some individuals do not pass this stage successfully and remained dependent and overly optimistic. Such people also find it hard to make intimate friends with others and fear prejudice which may be accompanied by greed (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). Individuals who are considered to have an oral personality are usually narcissistic which means accor ding to the DSM IV-TR enduring patterns of inner experience and behaviour that are sufficiently placed and deep-seated to bring a person into repeated conflicts with his or her social and occupational environment (Barlow & Durand, 2005, p.445). In other words the individual is characterized by an inflated sense of self- splendour, need for admiration, extreme self-involvement, and lack of empathy for others. However, this disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviours become persistent and very disabling or distressing (Barlow & Durand, 2005). In the second stage which is known as the anal stage and occurs in the second year of life, conflict centers on bowel training. In talk over this stage involves two figures, one is an aggressive phase.This allows the client to share reading that was stored up. The other phase is the retentive phase, where clients may hold on to their minus beliefs and attitudes until they are ready to release them. The reason for such behavior by client s is because they may find some pleasure in resisting and withholding this selective information (Garcia, 1995). The controversial Oedipal complex for boys or Electra complex for girls occurs in the phallic stage and happens around three to five years. This stage is seen by counselors as the phase of initiation and transition. According to Garcia (1995), Counselors may act as initiators by providing fitly challenging experiences within the scope of each individuals capability for mastery (p.499). Freud proposed children at this stage compete with the same sex kick upstairs for the affection of the opposite sex rear for example boys appetency to have their mother but are prevented by the presence of their father (see concomitant 1).Fear of punishment forces repression of such desires and consequently the superego is developed. To unsuccessfully go through this stage is believed to be associated with obsessive compulsive behaviours (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.446-447). Psychoanalys ts pointed out several reasons why the Oedipal complex seem unreal to individuals. Firstly, individuals are unable to comprehend their own Oedipal complex when they were children and what was comprehended was energetically repressed almost as short as individuals became aware of it. Secondly, individuals gradually accept their cultures perception for their sexual and aggressive life (Klepp, 2008). In the Caribbean for example boys have more freedom than girls and they suss out that they must become like their father, who is stereotypically aggressive, ambitious, powerful, and in direct contrast to his mother, who is stereotypically passive, obedient and nurturing and according to societal norms girls should also possess such traits. Therefore because of societal perspectives on an individuals life, it is considered as the norm and is accepted for a man to possess more than one female.However it is unorthodox and frowned upon for females to behave in this manner. The fourth stage w hich is known as the Latency occurs from age six years until puberty. In this stage sexual instincts are repressed and superego is fully developed. At this time clients may be initiating and cultivating new and transitional alliances outside of the helping relationship (Garcia, 1995). The fifth and closing curtain stage which is known as the genital stage begins with puberty and continues for the rest of adult life. Mature sexuality is the theme of this stage. This stage is also known as the definitive phase of the counseling process and marks the end of the counseling process and the beginning of its outcome which would be demonstrated over time (Garcia, 1995). Freud suggested strongly that personality was essentially established when the Oedipus and Electra complexes were successfully solved (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007, p.40-43).Patients usually get in contact with a psychoanalytic counselor when defences have failed and anxiety has developed. Therefore, the primary goal of couns elling, within a psychoanalytic frame of reference, is to make the unconscious conscious. By doing so any material that is repressed is brought to the conscious level and can be dealt with (Wachtek & Messer, 1997). According to Freud (as cited in, Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005, p. 74-82), blistery individuals are unaware of the many factors that cause their behaviour and emotions and as a result these unconscious factors have the potential to produce unhappiness, which in turn is expressed through a score of distinguishable symptoms, including disturbing personality traits, difficulty in relating to others and disturbances in self-esteem or general disposition.The counsel employs a variety of techniques to tap into a patients unconscious such as free tie-in, stargaze analysis, analysis of carry-over, analysis of opposite and recitation. All these modes have the long-term goal of strengthening the ego (Gladding, 2000, p.192-194). unloose association is a method that replaced hypnosis in Freuds therapy. It consists of a patient speaking about any subject intimacy one fundamentally abandons his or her customary conscious control over ones behaviour and gives free verbal expression to every thought, feeling or impulse of which one becomes aware. Conclusions are then brutald on what was tell and by doing this the guidance is hoping that the client will abandon all practice forms of censoring, or editing their thoughts (Rieber, 2006).An example of the use of free association is craft on a couch, in dim light and in a peaceful room, the patient produces the following free association I am thinking of the fluffy clouds I seem to see with my very eyes. They are white and pearly. The sky is full of clouds but a few color patches can still be seen here and there (Ewen, 1992, p.57). Colby (1960) pointed out that, this technique often leads to some recollection of past experiences and at times a release of intense feelings such as catharsis that have been s top but electrical resistance may occur during free association (p.54-58).. This means that the patient is unable to recall traumatic past events. Therefore, one task of the counsellor would be to overcome resistance. Blocking or disruptions in associations serve as cues to anxiety arousing material. According to Grnbaum (1986), free association is not a valid method of accessing the patients repressed memories because there is no way of ensuring that the analyst is capable of distinguishing between the patients actual memories and imagined memories constructed due to the influence of the analysts leading questions (p. 226).Another theatrical role of technique that is related to free association is transportation. Pervin et al., (2005) stated that, transference refers to a patients development of attitudes towards the counsellor establish on attitudes held by that patient toward earlier parental figures (p.129). In other words it is the clients unconscious shifting to the counsel lor of feelings and fantasies that are reactions to significant others in the patients past and present (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). This process is encouraged by the client reclining vulnerably on a couch, with the counsellor out of sight and remaining a blank ticket as much as possible. At this time a parent child relationship is developed among client and counsellor and therefore transfers the patients old emotions with his or her actual parents unto the counsellor. This makes for an extremely difficult seat in which the counsellor has a huge amount of influence, which is necessary but requires care and restraint (Sue & Sue, 2007).Freud initially believed transference was a hurdle in counselling. However, he eventually recognized that transference is a universal phenomenon and also occurs outside of the counselling session. But in order for the counselling fraction to produce change the transference relationship must be work through. Work through occurs after transference in the case of most erudition, the insights gained through psychoanalytic counselling must be practiced to coalesce them in ones life. It other words it allows the client to understand the influence of the past on his or her present situation, to accept it emotionally as well as intellectually, and to use the new understanding to make changes in present life. By doing this the client will also learn to avoid repressing the material (Schaeffer, 1998 Ewen, 1992). Ewen (1992) pointed out, several disadvantages to the transference technique. Firstly, this technique can not be effectively applied to group counselling.Secondly, it is possible for the transference to become extremely negative as when powerful distrust or obstinacy is displaced from a castrating parent to counsellor and the counsellor must be very careful not to aggravate deserved love or hate which would give the client a valid excuse for refusing to espy and learn from the transference technique (p.59). Warwar & Greenberg (20 00) discussed recent changes in psychoanalytic theory. kind of than presenting a problem, countertransference currently is considered to be a fundamental, useful component of the psychoanalytic counselling process, because it provides the counsellor with useful information about the counselling relationship (p.571-600). Countertransference occurs when the counsellor begins to project his or her own unresolved conflicts unto the client.While transference of the clients conflicts unto the counsellor is considered a healthy and normal part of psychoanalytic counselling, the counsellors job is to remain neutral as not to breech any of the ethical codes of counselling (Rosenberger & Hayes, 2002). Individuals are seen as being motivated by their past and present relationships, rather than by biological urges when this technique is in use, therefore the counselling relationship is seen as real. Thus clients behaviour is not seen primarily as transference, but as responses in a current rel ationship. In addition, change is understood to be the result of the constructive emotional experience of the counselling relationship, rather than the result of insight. This new emphasis on the reality and importance of this type of relationship appears to be integrated into other approaches to counselling as well (Sue & Sue, 2007). Some criticisms of countertransference are that it can be damaging if not properly managed.With proper monitoring, however, some sources show that counter-transference can play an important role. Counsellors are encouraged to pay close attention to their feelings in respect to this technique, and to seek peer review and supervisory guidance as needed. kinda than eliminating counter-transference altogether, the goal is to use those feelings productively rather than harmfully (Schaeffer, 1998). The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation. Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego (1989) states, interpretation is an attempt by the counsellor to impart signifi cance to the client. Interpretation means presenting the client with a hypothesis about relationships or meanings among his or her behaviours (p.175). In psychoanalytic counselling the counsellor is silent as much as possible, in order to encourage the patients free association and to interpret resistances and repressions that the client has not yet understood, but is capable of tolerating and incorporating, so as to better understand the unconscious conflicts that are interfering with daily functioning, such as phobias and depression (Clark, 1995).Interpretations by the counsellor appear to be the critical variable in counselling success, along with client insight about underlying motivations, in order to touch client goals. Therefore the goal of interpretation is to enable the ego to earn new material and to speed up the process of uncovering bring forward unconscious materials (Wachtel & Messer, 1997). According to Clark (1995) Interpretation was rejected by critics as a valid t echnique because, it was perceived as undermining the counsellors relationship, minimizing or subverting client business and restricting the counselling process to an intellectual endeavour (p.486). Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.170-172) saw dreams as the major source of insight into the unconscious and as very important. Dreams are seen as the royal road to the unconscious and are not literal in nature but symbolic. Dreams also consist of two levels of content the latent and manifest.Dream Analysis is a very imperfect science, as there are many levels of distortion between the patients unconscious and the counsellors interpretation, bearing in mind, according to Freud, dreams are interpreted in terms of phallic meanings (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). For example it is amazing how many ordinary items can be interpreted as being a penis such as chair legs or a vagina such as purses. Each fragment of a dream leads quickly to the disclosure of unconscious memories and fanta sies and then unto associations of other topics. Another technique that is involved in the psychoanalytic process of counselling is Analysis of resistance.Although a client may feel the need to change and truly desire help for themselves through the counsellor many things can enter the image to alter this change these things are referred to as resistance. Resistance refers to any idea, attitude, feelings or action which can be conscious or unconscious that fosters the spot quo and gets in the way of change. For example missed or being late for appointments, rambling on about the economy or politics, any type of distraction that seems to keep the client from actually focusing on the real issues is considered resistance (Sue & Sue, 2007,p.98). According to Gladding a counsellors analysis of resistance can assist clients gain insight to their situation and other behaviours (p.193). Psychoanalytic theory has been applied to counselling in terms of the assessment of personality. This t heory is the underlining factor of the performance based or projective tests used in psychoanalytic counselling. These assessments assist counsellors in the analysis of individuals unconscious thoughts, motives, feelings, conflicts and repressed problems from early childhood.These types of test generally have an unstructured response format, meaning that respondents are allowed to respond as much or as little as they like (free association) to a particular test stimulus, which is normally ambiguous (Pervin et al., 2005). The most common type of test used in this area includes the Rorschach Inkblot test. This test is a method used in psychological evaluation it can be administered to children as young as three, adolescents and adults. This assessment tries to probe the unconscious minds of clients. The counsellor will show the subject a series of ten irregular but symmetrical inkblots and ask the client to identify the inkblot. As the patient is examining the inkblots the counsellor writes down everything the patient says or does, no matter how trivial the subjects responses.These responses are then analysed in assorted ways noting not only what was said but the time taken to respond and which aspect of the drawings was focused on. At this time if a client consistently sees the images as threatening and frightening the counsellor might judge that the subject may be suffering from paranoia. Major criticisms of this test include a lack or reliability and validity. Individuals who benefit the most from psychoanalytic counselling are those middle aged clients who are searching for a meaning to life (Pervin et al., 2005). The principal concepts of psychoanalytic counselling can be grouped as structural, dynamic, and developmental concepts. This theory is a method for learning about the mind and insights into whatever the human mind produces. It is a way of understanding the processes of everyday mental functioning and the stages of development (Sue & Sue, 2007). Freuds approach is subject to several criticisms.Firstly, it is too time consuming, expensive and generally unable(p) to those who seek help from a psychoanalytic counsellor who has less roiled developmental or situational problems and disorders. Secondly, techniques involved in psychoanalysis, such as Freuds ideas on the interpretation of dreams and the role of free association, have been criticized. For instance, one counsellor may observe one phenomenon and interpret it one way, whereas another counsellor will observe the same phenomenon and interpret it in a wholly different way that is contradictory to the first psychoanalysts interpretation (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). Despite the weaknesses of psychoanalysis, there are many strengths of the theory that are extremely significant.It offers an empathetic and non-judgemental environment where the client can feel safe in revealing feelings or actions that have led to stress or focus in his or her life. It also lends itself to emp irical studies and provides a theoretical base support for a number of diagnostic tests (Gladding, 2000, p.194-195).Therefore, the psychoanalysis is a theory that should not be disregarded. Although it was developed a long time agone it is still applicable and an effective method of treating mental disorders such as paranoia, schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive reactions in todays societies. In addition, a good theory, according to many philosophers of science, is falsifiable, able to be generalized, leads to the development of new psychological theories and hypotheses. Psychoanalysis meets many of these criteria (Klepp, 2008).ReferencesBarlow,D., & Durand, V. (2005). 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